INTRODUCTION:

Infectious diseases spread by insects continue to be a major source of illness and mortality globally. Therefore, the impact of their removal is a major worry. With diseases like malaria (Anopheles), filariasis (Culex), and dengue (Aedes) causing millions of fatalities each year, primarily in Indian and African countries, mosquitoes are the most significant single group of insects in terms of disease transmission.¹ In recent years, reports of disease-causing insect-borne diseases have raised concerns for a variety of scientific fields.

Mosquitoes spread viruses and protozoan parasites that cause encephalitis, dengue fever, filariasis, chikungunya, and other infections in addition to the malaria-causing disease.² In addition to sucking blood and interfering with daily activities, mosquitoes are a nuisance in tropical and subtropical areas because they spread illnesses and viruses like malaria, filariasis, dengue fever, and encephalitis that are fatal and cause disease all over the world.³ The present death toll from all mosquito-borne infections is projected at between four hundred thousand and one million people, while in 2016 216 million people were infected and 445 000 deaths from malaria worldwide⁴. Pesticides are a wide range of substances which broadly include insecticides and repellents for insects. In the mosquito control programmers both the insecticides and the insect repellents were used simultaneously. Nevertheless, these traditional pesticide groups' continuous and extended access to the mosquito population has limited their efficacy in the mosquito population. Insecticides and repellents play ancrucial role in effective mosquito control and mosquito transmitted diseases. Nonetheless, there are many issues with the improper use of synthetic mosquito insecticides and repellents⁵. Mosquito resistance is growing more significant as a result of the long-term use of chemical pesticides that can easily disperse, damage the environment, and disrupt the ecological balance.⁶ Furthermore, while DEET, the principal ingredient in most repellents on the market, is an effective molecule, it can cause hazardous reactions as well as damage to plastic and synthetic fabrics. Seizures, slurred speech, hypotension, and bradycardia have been reported in children who use insect repellents containing high levels of DEET.⁷ Hence, high-effectiveness, low-harmfulness and environmental friendly mosquito control agents are urgently needed.

Natural Insect Repellents and plant-derived compounds with insecticidal potentials:

Insect repellents have usually been considered safe because some of these repellents can be synthesized from edible plants easily found in the tropics. There were thousands of plants evaluated as sources of insect repellents⁶. Given the environmental residue problems and the development of insect resistance against synthetic insecticides such as DDT and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Developing parasite resistance to commercial acaricides has sparked the search for new control strategies No plant-derived natural products are currently available for control of snails and slugs. Developing parasite resistance to commercial acaricides has sparked the search for new control strategies. The photodynamic compound alphaterthienyl was demonstrated to account for the heavy nematicidal behavior of Asteraceae.⁸^,⁹ Some conventional insect repellent plants that are scientifically documented and validated as insect repellent plants are discussed (Table 1) Mosquitoes in the larval process are ideal targets for insecticides because mosquitoes thrive in water, and in this environment, handling them is trouble-free. Many researchers have reported on the efficacy of plant extract against mosquito larvae¹⁰. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is not only a food ingredient widely used in gastronomy, but has also been used as a medicinal plant for a variety of ailments including headaches, mites, intestinal worms and tumors for over 4,000 years. The medicinal use of garlic remains popular around the world, and several studies have also shown its strong insecticide activity¹¹. Extracts from many medicinal plants, such as the Phytolacca dodecandra aerial component, have a powerful larvicidal action against mosquito larvae. Synthetic insecticides have been used as mosquito-controlling agents in recent decades, but have provided negative feedback from the effects on the environment, affecting non-target organisms, and physiologically immune to most mosquito species. Plant extracts have been generally recognized as an important natural resource for insecticides¹².

Table:1 Traditional insect repellent plants which are scientifically reported and authenticated as insect repellent plants

S. No	Scientific name of the plant	Previously reported or authenticated
1	Allium sativum	⁴⁶
2	Aloe pulcherrima	⁴⁷
3	Boswellia papyrifera	⁴⁸
4	Carica papaya	⁴⁹
5	Eucalyptus globulus	⁵⁰
6	Ocimum lamiifolium	⁵¹

Herbicides:

Inhibition of plant growth and making certain plants and their residues phytotoxic symptoms are a well-established occurrence. Screening of compounds known to work in plant-plant inters behavior is a rational approach in the quest for possible herbicides from plants¹³. All plants produce secondary compounds which are to some extent phytotoxic. Nevertheless, it has been well established in only a very few cases that specific compounds provide the generating species with a competitive advantage over other species which are less tolerant of the compound. Only a few of these all chemicals were actively pursued as herbicides and the natural compound was modified in those cases.¹⁴

Insecticides:

Insecticides and repellents play a significant role in successful insect control, mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases. Excessive use of synthetic insecticides causes many problems. Long-term use of chemical pesticides can easily spread and pollute the environment. Therefore, mosquito control agents with high efficiency, low toxicity and environmental friendliness are urgently needed.¹⁵ However, DEET, the main ingredient of most repellents on the market, is an important agent but is responsible for chemical reactions and damaging effects on plastic and synthetic materials.Children who absorb high amounts of DEET through insectrepellents have developed seizures, slurred speech, hypotension, and bradycardia. Therefore, mosquito control agents with high efficiency, low toxicity, and environmental friendliness are urgently needed.¹⁶

Nematicides and Molluscicides:

Most plant species are well known to be extremely nematodes resistant. In the case of Asteraceae, the photodynamic compound alphaterthienyl was demonstrated to account for the heavy nematicidal behavior. No plant-derived natural products are commercial products available for control of snails and slugs.¹⁷

Synthetic insect repellents, Effect, and toxicity study of some synthetic insect repellent (DMP):

Also known as dimethyl 1,2- Benzene dicarboxylate, DMP was one of the earliest synthetic repellents found and originally developed as a solvent that tested many solid repellents¹⁸. DMP was widely used as a wide spectrum repellent during the period 1940–1980. DMP exhibits low mouse toxicity (LD50: 6900mg/kg) and no toxicity was observed in rabbits exposed to 1000mg/kg daily dermal exposure. Minimum amount of DMP needed to prevent mosquito biting was 8–8.15mg per square inch.¹⁹

Indalone:

Indalone (Dimethyl-4-oxo-2H-pyran-6-carboxylate) was an effective repellent for both mosquitoes and ticks, and its efficacy was considered to be more effective than DEET. Indalone shows low oral toxicity (LD50: 13,700 mg/kg), but evidence of kidney and liver damage in rodents due to chronic exposure has limited their use.²⁰

N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide:

N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET) is a synthetic insect repellent present in natural surface waters at varying concentrations. DEET was first formulated for military use in the U.S. Army in 1944²¹. DEET is the active ingredient of many commercial insect repellents. Data on the environmental and organism toxicity of DEET is still limited. DEET causes neuroexcitation and toxicity in insects, while acetylcholinesterase is less responsive to DEET in both insects and mammals.²² A case report clarified that a 37-year-old male was subjected to cardiac arrest following 6-ounce DEET solution of 40 per cent. Upon diagnosis, the patient was irresponsive, acidemic, tachycardic, and hypotensive. Cerebral oedema, transtentorial and tonsillary herniation reflected non-contrast brain magnetic resonance imaging.²³

Diethyl phthalate:

Diethyl phthalate, a colorless liquid formed by ethanol reaction with phthalic anhydride along with sulfuric acid, is used in industry. Compound has been shown to damage reproductive organs and nervous systems in both male and female subjects.²⁴

Permethrin:

Permethrin is a component of the insect repellent extracted from the herb permethrine. Exposure to permethrin has been shown to provide maximum protection against malaria mosquitoes, ticks, and flies. Neurotoxicity is associated with inhalation of permithrin-containing sprays and the consumption of permethin-containing liquid.¹⁴

Ideal characteristics of an insect repellent and its active formulation.²⁵.

· No toxicity/Not irritating to skin and Long-lasting repellent action.

· Inert to contact with plastics, synthetic fibers, acrylics and glass and must not stain fabrics and clothing

· Excellent aesthetic and sensorial properties without leaving the sensation of oiliness in the skin and broad action over insects.

· High chemical stability and Low skin permeation

· Low cost to economic viability.

Role and need fornatural mosquito repellents:

Mosquito repellent that is bio-based is a pest management solution that is based on safe, biologically based ingredients. Bio-products offer effective control of mosquito as well as human and environmental safety. The Indian Peninsula accounts for almost 15,000 deaths each year among people of all ages.²⁶ These bio-based treatments were created to fill a gap in the pest management toolkit in locations where mosquito resistance, niche markets, and environmental concerns limit product use. Natural mosquito repellents are not a new concept. Some of the ingredients in this mosquito repellent come from the following sources: Basil (Ocimum basilicum), Castor, Cedar, Clove, Fennel, Citronella, Eucalyptus, Neem, Rosemary, and Catnip oil of the Nepeta class, which contains nepetalactone, Apium graveolens extract, and Solanum villosum berry juice These plant-based natural resources are not only excellent for the environment, but they also smell nice²⁷.

Mosquito Anatomy:

Mosquito anatomy is divided into three basic parts, namely, head, thorax, and abdomen. Sensors in the mosquito's head assist the mosquito in locating and feeding on people and animals. Male mosquitoes do not bite humans, however female mosquitoes bite humans because they need human blood protein to mature their eggs²⁸.

Identification of host by mosquitoes:

Female mosquitoes identify their hosts by their odors, distinguished by (1) mixtures of volatile compounds; (2) their ratio, and; (3) their unique temporal diffusion. Typically, host-seeking female mosquitoes perform a number of distinct behavioral steps: the first step in odor identification is the activation of the odorous receptor to fly upwind, the navigation of the odor plume by olfactory signals, the recognition of odor²⁹.

Fig-01 Identification of host by mosquito (A) Tsetse Fly Antennae. Sensilla has hemolymph, dendrites, sensory neuron and pores through which odorants enter the cell (B) Transport of odorants through sensillum lymph to the ORs in neurons where a particular receptor and a common Or83b receptor are required. Binding the odorant causes a signal transduction cascade that activates the correct response to the behavior ³⁰.

Methods and formulations available in the market as an insect repellent:

In order to prevent, control, and deter mosquitoes, a variety of techniques and formulations are employed both indoors and outside, including mosquito larvicides, mosquito insecticides, mosquito coils, electric mosquito mats, electric mosquito liquid, repellent liquid, aerosols, pump sprays, and lotions. Among others, DEET, pyrethrum, synthetic pyrethroids, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), dimethyl phthalate, IR3535, and alone are the primary pesticides used in these formulations and procedures³³.

Challenges in the development of insect repellents:

Despite its many benefits, the market for botanical pesticides has a number of significant obstacles, and despite recent growth, it has not been as rapid as that of the industry for botanical medicines. Some of these difficulties have been looked through. The primary issue is the high cost of toxicological testing for new products that may only have weak Intellectual Property (IP) protection and a small market. The cost-effective supply of plant products, lack of consistency, and quality control are further difficulties. Competition from other biopesticides and biocontrol agents is also present³⁴.

Mode of action of mosquito repellent:

A substance that is applied to the skin to prevent mosquitoes from landing or crawling on it is known as a repellent. Repellants often function by disguising human odour or by employing a fragrance that mosquitoes are drawn to naturally. Warm-blooded animals' sweat contains lactic acid and CO2, which serves as an allure for mosquitoes³¹.

Fig-02 Mode of action of mosquito repellent (A) Arthropods including mosquitos use chemical markers (green plume) to locate a host and feed. Topical repellents (red plume) work by disrupting attraction behaviour at close range or on touch. Spatial repellents demonstrate their influence at considerably longer distances. (B) Insect repellents such as Deet interact with several classes of sensory receptors distributed on different arthropod appendages (odorant receptor, OR; gustatory receptor, GR and ionotropic receptor, IR). Future insect repellents can interact with other receptor families including the potential transient receptor channel (TRP), the pickpocket receptor (PPK) and the receptor coupled with G-protein (GPCR). ³²

Newer approaches in the development of insect repellent:

A vast collection of compounds with a wide variety of biological functions can be found in the secondary compounds of plants. Thousands of different plant species have co-evolved to produce this type. Therefore, unlike compounds created in a lab, secondary compounds from plants are almost always biologically active, and that activity is quite likely to serve as a defence mechanism for the generating plant against a pathogen, herbivore, or rival..³⁵.Very few pesticides that are tested and determined to be extremely effective are ever put on the market. Making the decision to create and sell an insecticide requires careful consideration of numerous aspects. The patentability of the substance is taken into account in the early hours. As with any synthetic (chemical-based) compound, a patent exploration must be conducted for natural (plant-based) compounds. A compound's insecticidal properties could lead to patent issues if they were previously published.³⁶. There is a wealth of published data on the biological activity of natural products, as opposed to manufactured substances. For this reason, in some circumstances, patenting synthetic analogues without mentioning the original source of the chemical family may be safer than doing so with the natural product..³⁷.Finding the most cost-effective method of production is necessary before deciding to create a natural insecticide for commercial use. Although this is a crucial concern when deciding whether to use more pesticides, it is especially complex and important when using natural products..³⁸. Pesticides have historically been made from unprocessed natural product combinations. However, given the current regulatory environment, it might be impossible to get approval for the public to utilise a complicated cocktail of numerous biologically active substances. So, the question of whether the pure substance will be created through traditional chemical synthesis or through biosynthesis and purification will likely be taken into consideration.³⁹ Finding better alternatives to current insect repellents is extremely difficult because the receptors that cause olfactory repellence are either unknown or only partially understood. Numerous studies were undertaken in the past to learn more about the olfactory mosquito system, but despite these great efforts, little is known about the precise mode of action and molecular targets of the active ingredients included in insect repellents.⁴⁰ The resurgence of speculation and the affordability of a freshly developed product are in stark contrast. However, there are currently three hypotheses regarding how repellents work: In particular, it is thought that mosquito olfactory systems, which have hundreds of receptor proteins from three separate families—(I) ionotropic receptor (Ir); (II) odorous receptor (Or); and (III) gustatory receptor (Gr) groups—work to activate repellents⁴¹. The antenna, maxillary palps, and proboscis in sensilla all have similar numbers of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) that express these receptors. The glomeruli in the duet cerebrum of the brain are innervated by the ORN axons, who are thought to be sorted according to their expressed receptors⁴².However, recent developments in molecular and computational methods made it feasible to conduct in-depth analyses of the mosquito olfactory system function, which helped to disclose the role of particular receptors in the ideal insect repellent perception process. Here are a few recently found synthetic mosquito repellents that have been classified as effective insect repellents. (Table 4). This led to the following groundbreaking findings⁴³. Listed few new and most common natural plants having volatile oil and active compound with mosquito repellent action. (Table 2)

Significance of Plant weeds in development of mosquito repellent:

Weed flora is an integral part of a region's agroecological system though it is seen from an economic point of view as a challenge to crops. Useful weed species can be spared during manual weeding operations, nurtured and preserved where they emerge spontaneously or even planted and nursed purposefully.. ⁴⁴. Weed species and associations promote crop performance by providing food plus shelter for beneficial insects, birds and hence enhancing ecosystem services in the form of pollination, soil erosion, nitrogen leaching and pest management⁴⁵.

Manipulation of weed populations has the ability to foster associational resistance to main pests in crops. Weeds and other non-crop plants can obscure visual and olfactory indications that limit the ability of insects to reach hosts. These properties of insect repellent can be enhancing by adding some other weeds in the future³⁶.

DISCUSSION:

A serious health epidemic is developing as a result of the invisible killer's accumulation in human health. The two most widely used synthetic insect repellents worldwide are DEET and picaridin (Table 3). These substances have been found to have harmful effects on the nervous system, skin, lungs, and airways. There have already been hundreds of insect repellents put on the market. Malaria, dengue, and chikungunya are all diseases that are spread by insects like mosquitoes. Despite this, the threat posed by vector-borne diseases has not yet been fully controlled. Insufficient consumer compliance is the main cause of this failure. Therefore, it is important that formulations for mosquito repellents are created to maximise product compliance and acceptability. Sprays, creams, lotions, aerosols, oils, evaporators, pads, canisters, and other items are available as insect repellents.

Table: 2 Newly and most common natural plants having volatile oil and active compound with mosquito repellent action.

S. No	Essential oil	Plant	Active compound	References
1	Citronella	Cympobogonsp	Citronellal	⁵²
2	Lemon eucalyptus	Corymbia citriodora	Citronellal, p-menthane-3,4-diol, citronellol,	³⁰
3	Peppermint	Mentha piperita	Menthol	³⁰
4	Garlic	Alium sativum	Ajoene	⁵³
5	Cinnamon	Cinnamomum zeylanicum	Cinnamaldehyde	⁵⁴
6	Lemongrass	Cymbopogancitratus	Citral	⁵⁵
7	Orange	Citrus sinensis	d- Limonene	⁵⁶
8	Eucalyptus	Eucalyptus globules	1,8 Cineole	⁵⁷
9	Lemon Eucalyptus	Eucalyptus citriodora	p-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)	⁵⁸
10	Sweet Basil	Ocimum basilicum	citral, limonene, geranium acid, and a-camphorene	⁵⁸
11	Limonella	Zanthoxylum limonella	p-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)	Trongtokit et al. (2005a,b)
12	Patchouli	Pogostemoncablin	patchouli alcohol	Rawani A et al. (2012)
13	Basil	Ocimum spp	Linalool	Müller et al. (2009)
14	Neem	Azadirachta indica	Not established	Maia and Moore (2011)
15	Catnip	Nepeia cataria L.)	Nepetalactone	Nitin VK, Kiran AW(2014)
16	Wild Tomato Plant	Lycopersicon hisutum	2-undecanone	Nitin VK, Kiran AW(2014)
17	Citronella	Cymbopogon winterianus	citronellal, geraniol, citronellol	Mukandiwa L, Eloff JN(2015)
18	Clove	Syzygiumaromaticum	eugenol	Mukandiwa L, Eloff JN(2015)

Table: 3 Commercially available old and newly synthetic mosquito repellents reported as insect repellent active compounds

Commercially available old synthetic mosquito repellents reported as insect repellent active compounds.			Newly discovered synthetic mosquito repellents reported as insect repellent active compounds
S. N.	Active compounds	Previously reported or authenticated	Active compounds	Previously reported or authenticated
1	DEET	Alpern et al. (2016), Barradas et al. (2015), Lupi et al. (2013)	Ethyl 2-aminobenzoate (Ethyl anthranilate)	Guda et al. (2015), Kain et al. (2013)
2	Permethrin	Banks et al. (2014), Goodyer et al. (2010),	Butyl 2-aminobenzoate (Butyl anthranilate)	Guda et al. (2015), Kain et al. (2013)
3	Picaridin	Katz et al. (2008), Bissinger and Roe (2010),	Methyl jasmonate	Xu et al. (2014)
4	DEPA	Moore and Debboun (2007), Tikar et al. (2014)	4-methylpiperidine	Guda et al. (2015)

Table:4 Newly discovered synthetic mosquito repellents reported as insect repellent active compounds

S. No	Active compounds	Previously reported or authenticated
1	Ethyl 2-aminobenzoate (Ethyl anthranilate)	Guda et al. (2015), Kain et al. (2013)
2	Butyl 2-aminobenzoate (Butyl anthranilate)	Guda et al. (2015), Kain et al. (2013)
3	Methyl 2 (dimethylamino)benzoate (Methyl N,N-dimethyl anthranilate)	Guda et al. (2015), Kain et al. (2013)
4	4-methylpiperidine	Guda et al. (2015)
5	Methyl jasmonate	Xin JH, Wang XW (2018)

CONCLUSION:

The main aim of this study is to focus on natural insect repellent containing essential oil and alkaloids and balance the risks of preventing arthropod-borne diseases and potential negative health consequences of insect repellents, precaution should be used. There are still a lot of unknowns regarding how pesticides affect the environment and human health. To close the knowledge gaps in pesticide toxicity, more interdisciplinary research is required. But no repellant has yet been created. They are employed in a variety of anti-mosquito formulations such as sprays, creams, lotions, aerosols, oils, evaporators, patches, canisters, etc., taking into consideration the usage factors of repellents such as vapour pressure, protection, scent, and solubility.

Future perspectives:

Many potential repellents exist, but their use is still limited due to unknown insect chemical ecology and unknown insect repellant mechanism. There are weeds that contain specific chemical constituents that can cure many diseases as well as act as mosquito repellent. These weeds can further be used for the production of medicines.

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Received on 16.09.2022 Modified on 19.10.2022

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2023; 16(5):2557-2564.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2023.00420